Class 11 Geography chapter 3 Drainage system notes

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 Drainage system

Basic terms

• This flow of water through channels is called drainage, 

•  the network of these channels forms a drainage system. The drainage pattern of an area depends on factors like geological time, rock structure, topography, slope, water volume, and flow periodicity.

• A river collects water from its catchment area, and the area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage basin. There are different drainage patterns:

1. Dendritic: Resembles tree branches, common in northern plains.
2. Radial: Rivers flow in all directions from a central point, seen in the Amarkantak range.
3. Trellis: Primary tributaries flow parallel, secondary tributaries join at right angles.
4. Centripetal: Rivers discharge water into a central lake or depression
• The boundary line separating one drainage basin from other is called as watershed Small catchments are called watersheds, while large ones are river basins.

Indian Drainage System:

• It can be divided into the following 
• By Discharge: Divided into Arabian Sea drainage and Bay of Bengal drainage.
• By Size:
• Major river basins (>20,000 sq. km) include 14 basins like the Ganga and Brahmaputra.
• Medium river basins (2,000-20,000 sq. km) include 44 basins like the Kalindi and Periyar.
• Minor river basins (<2,000 sq. km) include many small rivers.
• Classification: Based on origin and characteristics, divided into Himalayan and Peninsular drainage systems.

Himalayan drainage system 

• Himalayan Drainage: Includes perennial rivers like the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra, forming gorges, valleys, and waterfalls.
• Depositional Features and River Behavior :As rivers enter the plains, they create various depositional features such as flat valleys, ox-bow lakes, flood plains, braided channels, and deltas near their mouths. 
• In the Himalayan regions, rivers have a highly tortuous course, but they tend to meander and frequently shift their courses in the plains.
•  The Kosi River, known as the ‘sorrow of Bihar’, is notorious for frequently changing its course due to the large quantities of sediment it brings from its upper reaches. This sediment deposition often blocks the river’s course, causing it to change direction.

Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage 

• Geologists believe that a mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma once traversed the entire length of the Himalayas from Assam to Punjab, discharging into the Gulf of Sind during the Miocene period (5-24 million years ago).
•  Over time, this river was dismembered into three main drainage systems due to geological upheavals:

• Indus System: Located in the western part.
• Ganga System: Found in the central part.
• Brahmaputra System: Situated in the eastern part.
• The dismemberment was likely caused by the Pleistocene upheaval in the western Himalayas, including the uplift of the Potwar Plateau, which acted as a water divide between the Indus and Ganga systems. Similarly, the down-thrusting of the Malda gap area diverted the Ganga and Brahmaputra systems towards the Bay of Bengal.
  
  
  

Indus river system 

•  The Indus system is one of the largest river basins in the world, originating from a glacier in the Tibetan region and flowing through India and Pakistan. It receives numerous tributaries from the Himalayas and the Sulaiman ranges.

• The Indus River System is one of the longest and most significant river systems in the world, spanning approximately 2,900 kilometers. 
• Originating near Lake Mansarovar in Tibet, where it is known as singi khamban.  the Indus River flows through the Ladakh region of India, forming a picturesque gorge before entering Pakistan, where it eventually empties into the Arabian Sea
• The system comprises five major rivers: the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. 
• These rivers collectively drain a vast area, providing water resources crucial for agriculture, industry, and daily life in both India and Pakistan. 

• Jhelum River: Originating from pir panjal in the Indian-administered region of Jammu and Kashmir, the Jhelum flows through the Kashmir Valley before entering Pakistan. It is known for its scenic beauty and historical significance

• Chenab River: Formed by the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers in the Himachal Pradesh region of India, the Chenab flows through Jammu and Kashmir into Pakistan. It is largest tributaries of the Indus and plays a crucial role in the irrigation systems of both countries

• Ravi River: Rising in the Himalayas in Himachal Pradesh, the Ravi flows through the Indian state of Punjab before entering Pakistan. It joins chenab near Sarai sidhu It is one of the five rivers that give Punjab its name (Punjab means “land of five rivers”)

• Beas River: Originating from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh, the Beas flows through the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab before merging with the Sutlej River. It is known for its historical and mythological significance

• Sutlej River: The longest of the five rivers of Punjab, the Sutlej originates from Lake Rakshastal in Tibet. It flows through Himachal Pradesh and Punjab in India before entering Pakistan, where it eventually joins the Indus River. The Sutlej is vital for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation Bhakra nangal project is on this river

Ganga river system

• Significance for basin and cultural significance
• It originates near gangotri glacier in gomukh near Uttarakhand
• It is known as Bhagirathi here when it meets Alaknanda devprayag it is known as Ganga
• Course: The Ganga flows southeast through the Gangetic Plain of North India, passing through the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal. It finally empties into the Bay of Bengal through the Sundarbans delta
• It has various tributaries and two distributaries Bhagirathi and Hoogly
• Tributaries include the following

Yamuna

• Rises in Yamunotri glacier and meet Ganga at Allahabad at Prayag
• It is joined by Chambal, sind, betwa and Ken on its right Bank while the hindal ,the rind, the sengar join it as left Bank tributary
• Most of its water is used for irrigation purpose
• It is the longest tributary of Ganga

Chambal

• It rises and mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh
• It flows through North ward forming a George in Kota of Rajasthan 
• Chambal is known for its badland topography known as Chambal ravines 

Gandak

• It comprises of two streams known as kaligandak and trishul Ganga
• It prices in Nepal Himalayas between the dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the central part of Nepal
• It enters India in Champaran district of Bihar and joints the Ganga near Patna

Ghaghra

• It originates from glacier Mapchachungo
• After collecting water from its tributaries it comes out of mountain forming a deep George in shishapani
• The river Kali Ganga joints at before it meets Ganga at chharpa

Kosi

• It is an antecedent river with its source of origin in the north of Mount Everest in Tibet
• After crossing Himalayas in Nepal it is joined by son Kosi in west and tamur Kosi in East
• IT form saptkosi after Uniting with the river Arun

Ramganga

• Is comparatively a small river rises in Garhwal hills it changes at course in the Southwest direction after crossing shivaliks enters the  plains of Uttar Pradesh and meet Ganga near Kannauj 

Damodar

• It occupies the eastern margin of chota Nagpur plateau 
• It was once known as sorrow of Bengal
• Damodar valley corporation a multipurpose project is built on this river

Sarda

• Rises in Nepal Himalayas where it is known as Goriganga
• Along indo china border it is known as Kali where it is joined by Ghaghra

Mahanadi

• Rises in Darjiling hills
• Join ganga as last bank tributary

Son

• Originates in Amarkantak pleateau
• Major right Bank tributary

Bhramaputra river system

• It has its origin in Kailash mountains near Mansarovar lake
• It travels East for longitudely in Tibetan region where it is known as Tsangpo means the purifier
• Forms a deep George in Central Himalayas
• It enters India in Arunachal Pradesh there after it is known as Brahmaputra
• It's major tributaries are the dibang and lohit
• The Brahmaputra enters Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows South
• It joins thishta river as its right Bank tributary and known as Jamuna
• It is well known for floods channel shifting and erosion

Peninsular drainage system 

•  slop from west to east
•  Subsidence of the Western flank of the Peninsula leading to its submergence below the sea during the early tertiary period
• A field of the Himalayan when the northern flank of the peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the consequent through Faulting the Narmada and the tapi flow in through falls and fill the original tracks with their depress material hence there is a lack of alluvial and deltanic deposits in this river
• Slight tilting of the Peninsula block from Northwest to the south east and direction gave orientation to the entire drainage system through bay of Bengal during the period

River system in peninsular India

Mahanadi

•  Rises in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh
• Discharge its water in bay of Bengal
• . It's drainage basin lies in Madhya Pradesh ,Chhattisgarh and Odisha

 Godavari

•  Largest Peninsula river system
• . Known as dakshin Ganga
• . rises in Nashik district of Maharashtra
• . Runs through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh ,Chhattisgarh ,Orissa and Andhra Pradesh
• It is subjected to heavy floods it forms a George in Andhra Pradesh

Krishna

• Second largest east flowing peninsular river
• Rises in Mahabaleshwar
• Koniya, tungabhadra, Bhima are its major tributaries
• It’s catchment area lies in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana

Kaveri

• rises in brahmagiri hills of Karnataka
• The river carriers water throughout the year with less fluctuation
• The river basin falls in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
• Major tributaries are kabini ,Bhawani ,Amravati

Luni

• Largest river in Rajasthan west of Aravali
• Originates in Pushkar in two branches Sabarmati and Saraswati
• It flows West then takes a turn in Southwest direction to join runn of Kutch it is ephemeral river

Narmada

• Rises in western flank of Amarkantak plateau
• Close in a rift valley between Satpura and Vidya hills
• Forms a George and dhuandhar falls near Jabalpur
• Meets Arabian branch sardar sarovar project has been constructed on this river

Tapi

• Originates in Madhya Pradesh
• It’s been lies in Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat
• It flows in Arabian sea

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Class 11 Geography chapter 2 Structure and physiographic notes

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 Structure and physiographic 

On the variation of geological structure India can be divided into three broad categories

1. The Peninsula block
2. The Himalayan and other Peninsula mountains
3. Indo Ganga Brahmaputra plains

The Peninsula block

Location

• It is an irregular line that runs from Kutch to the Aravali range near Delhi parallel to Yamuna then to rajmahal hills and the Ganga delta
• Apart from the irregular triangle shape it also includes kabri anglong and Meghalaya plateau in the north east and Rajasthan in the west
• The north east and parts are separated from the main block by Malda flaut

Features

• Peninsular block is formed of ancient granite and is very strong 
• Since the Cambrian period it stand like a rigid block with some little changes due to technic activity without affecting the original basement
• It has been subjected to various vertical movements and block faulting the river valleys of Narmada Tapi and Mahanadi are example of it

The Himalayan and other Peninsula mountains

• They are very young weak and flexible unlike the peninsular block
• They are subjected to inter play of exogenic and endogenic forces
• They are tectonic in nature and they have fast flowing rivers and various landforms which include oxbow Lake Georges valleys waterfalls etc

Indo Ganga Brahmaputra plains

• This cover parts of Northern planes originally it was a depression that is maximum development during the third phase of Himalayan formation
• It has been filled by sediments bought by Himalayan rivers
•  It is very fertile region are suitable for agriculture. The average depth of alluvial deposits bought by the rivers range from 1000 to 2000 m

Physiography

It means the outcome of structural, process and stage of development

Based on macro variations India can be divided into 6 physiographic division

1. The northern are north eastern mountains
2. The northern plain
3. The Peninsula plateau
4. The Indian desert
5. The coastal plains
6. The island
   
   
   

The northern and North eastern mountains

• The consists of Himalayas and north eastern hills
• The Himalayas consist of parallel mountain ranges the greater Himalayan range consists of the great Himalayas and the shivaliks

Location

• It is from Northwest to south east direction in the North Western part of India
• IND Darjeeling and Sikkim region it lies in East West direction
• In Arunachal Pradesh its from Southwest to the Northwest direction
• In Nagaland Manipur and Mizoram they are from the South North direction

Features

• The approximately length of greater Himalaya range is 2500 km from east to west and the width is 160 to 400 km from north to south
• This stand like a rigid wall between Indian subcontinent and Central and East Asian countries
• They also are a climate drainage and cultural divide with physical barrier that protect us from the cold winds of Central Asia

The northern plains

• They are found by alluvial deposits that are bought by rivers Ganga Indus and Brahmaputra
• The extend up to a length of 3200 km from east to west and the average width of 150 to 200 km from north to south

• From north to south this can be divided into three major zones the bhabar ,the tarai and the alluvial deposits. The alluvial deposits can be further divided into bhangar and khadar

• BHABAR
•  it's narrow bad that range from 8 to 10 km parallel to shivaliks
• It has lot of rocks so the rivers and streams disappear here
• The rocks are deposited by rivers as the brink huge materials

• TERAI 
• It's a belt South to Babar 10 to 20 km parallel to bhabar 
• It's the area where all rivers re emerge however they do not have a well created channel so the area is very swampy
• It is best suitable for agriculture

• ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS
• BHANGAR 
• It is known as old alluvial
• It is not renewed every year and thus less suitable for agriculture
• KHADAR
• It is known as new alluvial
• It is renewed every year and is suitable for agriculture

• The mouths of this mighty rivers make the largest deltas of the world the best example would be Sundarban delta
• The state of Haryana and Delhi forms of water divide for Indus and Ganga
• The Brahmaputra takes 90 degree turn at dhubri to enter Bangladesh

The Peninsula plateau

• It is up to 600 to 900 m about the river and is a irregular shaped triangle known as peninsular plateau

Location

• Delhi ridge in the Northwest the rajmahal hills in the east Gir range in the west and cardamom hills in the south constitute the outer extent of the peninsular plateau
• And extension of this is seen in the Shillong and karbi anglong plateau
• Hazaribagh Malwa plateau are all it's part
• The general elevation is from west to east

Features

• It has black soil 
• It has various important physiographic features such as block mountains rift valleys dykes etc
• Peninsular plateau can be divided into three broad groups the

1.  Deccan plateau
2. The central highlands
3. The north eastern plateau

The Deccan plateau

• It is bordered by Western ghats and eastern ghats and has many hills
• It is believe that it was made out of volcanic eruption
• Western ghats and eastern ghats 
• Western ghats in west are comparatively higher in elevation and continuous then eastern ghats
• Average elevation is 1500 m that increases from north to south in Western ghats
• Eastern ghats comprises of discontinuous and low hills
• Most of peninsular rivers have origin in Western ghats and float towards east ghats
• Anaimudi is the highest peak of peninsular plateau in Western ghats
• Eastern ghats are highly eroded by Godavari Krishna and Kaveri etc rivers
• Eastern ghats include important ranges like Javadi mahendragiri hills etc
• Eastern ghats and Western ghats meet each other at Nilgiri

 Central highlands

• central highlands are bounded by aravali, satpura ranges and deccan trap 
•  The general elevation of 6000 to 9000 M about sea level
• They are the example of discontinuous range or relic mountains
• They extent up to peninsular plateau and Jaisalmer in the west
• Sand dunes and bar change are found here in Jaisalmer region
• Tributaries like Yamuna tributaries have their origin here
• Banus is a major tributary of river Chambal which originates here
• It has a large reserve of resources in the form of chota Nagpur plateau mineral resources are present South Of the pleateau 

The North eastern plateau 

• It is an extension of main peninsular plateau
• Due to the forces that is exerted by the North East for movement of the Indian plate at the time of Himalayan formation a huge fault is created between rajmahal hills and Meghalaya plateau
• This was later filled by the numerous rivers of Himalayas
• The Meghalaya and karbi anglong stay detached from the main Peninsula block
• The Meghalaya plateau is divided into 3 the garo hills, the khansi hills and jayantia hills
• The Meghalaya plateau is rich in mineral resources like cool iron limestone and Uranium
• This year is maximum rainfall and has highly eroded surface

The Indian desert

• To the Northwest of the Aravali hills lies the great Indian desert
• It receives less than 150 mm of rainfall per year
• It has added area with low vegetation cover and that's why it's known as marusthali
• It is believe that turning the mesozoic era this region was covered with water
• It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans
• Luni river flowing to the southern part of the desert is one of the most significant river
• Low precipitation and high evaporation make it a water deficit region
• On the basis of orientation it can be divided into two

1. The northern part sloping towards Sindh
2. The southern part sloping towards Rann of Kutch

The coastal plains

• It can be broadly divided into two
• Western coastal plains
• Eastern coastal plains

Western coastal plains

1. Western coastal plains of Submerged coastal plains

2. Western coastal plain is a narrow belt

3. Western coastal plains provide natural conditions for ports harbour like Kandla Kochi

and Mangalore

4. Western coastal plains extent from Gujarat in North to Kerala in South

5. Western coastal plains is for the divided into the konkon coast and Malabar coast

6. Western coastal plain is narrow in middle broader in North and south

7. Western coastal plains don't have any deltas because the river flowing through are seasonal and don't have much water

8. Special features like kayals backwaters gives us a tourist destination and is also useful for fishing famous nehru trophy vallamkali ( boat race) is held in punnamada Kayal in Kerala

Eastern coastal plains

1. Eastern coastal plains are broader and have a emergent coast

2. There are well developed deltas found here that are formed by river flowing East towards into the bay of Bengal

3. Due to its emergent nature there are less number of ports and harbour

4. Eastern coastal plains is divided into Coromandal coast and northern circar

5. In the eastern coastal plains there is more of fertile soil

6. Eastern coastal plains are broader and more fertile than the Western coastal plains more farming can be done here example paddy cultivation and jute cultivation

7. Eastern coastal plains has a very unique feature of Sundarban delta it is a World Heritage site

The Islands

There are two major Island groups in India the Andaman and Nicobar Island and the Lakshadweep Island

Andaman and Nicobar Island

1. Andaman and Nicobar islands are located in bay of Bengal

2. Andaman and Nicobar is a bigger group of island with 572

Islands

3. Andaman is located in North and Nicobar is located in South they are separated by

a water body called as 10 degree channel

4. These islands are believe to be an elevated portion of submarine mountains

5. Some of them are volcanic in origin too

6. Barren island is the only active volcano in India located in Nicobar Islands 

7. These are situation between 6°N to 14°N and 92°E to 94° E

Lakshadweep Island

1. Lakshadweep island is located in Arabian sea 

2. the entire group of island is built of coral deposits

3. There are approx 36 islands out of which 11 are inhabited

4. Minicoy is the largest island

5. The entire group of island is separated by 10 degree channel

6. North of which amini island and south of which is canannore island 

7. These are situation between 8 N to 12 N and 71° E to 74° E

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Class 11 chapter 4 Distribution of ocean and continents notes

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Distribution of ocean and continents 

Continental Drift Theory

• The Continental Drift Theory was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. It suggests that all continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangea and later drifted apart.

Evidence Supporting Continental Drift

1. Matching of Continents (Jigsaw Fit) – The eastern coastline of South America and the western coastline of Africa fit together.

2. Rocks of Same Age Across Oceans – Rock formations on continents like Brazil and Africa show a similar age and type.

3. Tillite (Glacial Deposits) – The same type of glacial deposits are found in India, South Africa, Australia, and Antarctica.

4. Placer Deposits – Similar gold deposits found in Ghana (Africa) and Brazil (South America).

5. Fossil Evidence – Identical fossils of Mesosaurus (a freshwater reptile) found in now-separated continents.

Forces Behind Continental Drift

1. Tidal Force – Wegener suggested that the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun caused the continents to move.

2. Pole-Fleeing Force – Due to Earth’s rotation, landmasses moved away from the poles.

While Wegener’s explanation of movement was inadequate as believed by scientific community, his theory paved the way for the development of Plate Tectonics.

Post-Drift Theories

Sea-Floor Spreading Theory (Proposed by Harry Hess, 1961)

• Magma Rises at Mid-Ocean Ridges – Forms new crust as it cools.
• Crust Moves Away from the Ridge – Like a conveyor belt, carrying continents with it.
• Age of Rocks – Rocks near ridges are younger, and those farther away are older.
• Sediments found on ocean crust are thin as compared to continental one 
• Infact ocean crust is younger (200 million year old)as compared to continental crust ( 3200 million year old) 

Convection Current Theory

• Heat from Earth’s core causes the mantle to flow.
• It rises to the surface then cool down then again rises causing conventional current 
• Convection currents move tectonic plates, leading to earthquakes, volcanic activity, and mountain formation.

Ocean Floor Configuration

1. Continental Margins

• Continental Shelf – A shallow, submerged edge of a continent.
• Continental Slope – A steep descent from the shelf to the deep ocean.
• Continental Rise – A gradual incline formed by accumulated sediments.
• Deep-Ocean Trenches – The deepest parts of the ocean, found at subduction zones.

2. Abyssal Plains

• Flat, extensive ocean floor areas covered by fine sediments.

3. Mid-Oceanic Ridges

• Underwater mountain chains formed by seafloor spreading.
• Central Rift System – A valley with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

Distribution of Earthquakes & Volcanoes

Earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated along plate boundaries.

• Mid-Ocean Ridges – Plates move apart, causing shallow earthquakes.

• Alpine-Himalayan Belt & Pacific Rim – Deep earthquakes and intense volcanic activity.
• Ring of Fire – A highly active volcanic belt around the Pacific Ocean.

Sea-Floor Spreading & Plate Tectonics

• Volcanic Eruptions at Mid-Ocean Ridges – Create new oceanic crust.
• Magnetic Reversals – Identical magnetic stripes on both sides of ridges.

Age of Rocks –

• Oldest oceanic crust = 200 million years.
• Oldest continental rocks = over 3.2 billion years.

• Thin Oceanic Sediments – No sediments older than 200 million years.

Earthquake Patterns –

• Deep earthquakes occur in subduction zones.
• Shallow earthquakes occur at mid-ocean ridges.

Plate Tectonics

Types of Plates

Continental Plates – Carry landmasses.

Oceanic Plates – Mostly under oceans.

Major Plates

1. Antarctic Plate

2. North American Plate

3. South American Plate

4. Pacific Plate

5. Indo-Australian Plate

6. African Plate

7. Eurasian Plate

Minor Plates

• Cocos Plate (between Central America & Pacific Plate)
• Nazca Plate (between South America & Pacific Plate)
• Arabian Plate (Saudi Arabia region)
• Philippine Plate (east of the Philippines)
• Caroline Plate (between the Philippines & Indian Plate)
• Fiji Plate (northeast of Australia)

Types of Plate Boundaries

1. Divergent Boundaries (Spreading Sites)

• Plates move apart, forming new crust.
• Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

2. Convergent Boundaries (Subduction Zones)

• One plate moves under another, forming volcanoes, trenches, and mountain ranges.
• Example: Java Trench.

3. Transform Boundaries

• Plates slide past each other horizontally.
• Mostly found in oceans, linking mid-ocean ridges.

Rate of Plate Movement

Fastest – Pacific Plate moves over 10 cm per year.

Slowest – The Arctic Ridge, moving less than 2.5 cm per year.

Forces Driving Plate Movement

• Convection Currents – Hot mantle rises, cools, and sinks, driving plate motion.

• Radioactive Decay & Residual Heat – Provide energy for mantle movement.

Movement of the Indian Plate

Boundaries

North – Collides with Eurasian Plate, forming the Himalayas.

East – Extends through Myanmar to the Java Trench.

West – Moves along Pakistan’s Kirthar Mountains to the Red Sea.

South – Bordered by an oceanic ridge.

Historical Movement

• 225 million years ago – India was an island near Australia.

• 200 million years ago – Began moving northward.

• 60 million years ago – Deccan Traps formed due to volcanic eruptions.

• 40–50 million years ago – Collided with Eurasia, forming the Himalayas.

• Present – The Himalayas are still rising.

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Class 11 Geography chapter 3 Interior of the Earth notes

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🌍 Interior of the Earth 🌎

Sources of information about the earth 

• Earth's radius is 6,370 km 
• Most of our knowledge about the interior of the Earth is based on estimates
• Yet , a part of information is obtained through direct observation and analysis of material

Direct source

• Things which are part of earth and analysed to get information about earth
• This includes surface rocks or rocks available from mining
• Scientist over world are working on two major projects . Deep ocean drilling project and Integrated ocean drilling project.
• The second source is through volcanic eruption.As the molten magma thrown into surface
• However, it is difficult to ascertain the depth of sources of such magma

Indirect sources

• Analysis of properties of matter indirectly provides information about the interior
• Like Temperature, pressure and density increases with depth
• Another are meteors which are believed to be made of same material as earth
• Other are gravitation, magnatic field and seismic activity
• The reading of gravity differ due to various factors . The difference is called gravity anomaly

Earthquake

• It is caused by release of energy in simple terms it is defined as the sudden shaking of earth

• Why does earth shake? 
• When the blocks gets deformed and slide past each other. This causes a release of energy and the waves travel in all directions causing earthquake
• The point where energy is released is called hypocentre or focus.
• The point on the surface perpendicular to the focus is called epicenter
  
  
  

• Earthquake waves 
• Earthquake waves are basically of two types 1. Body waves and 2. Surface waves
• As suggested by name body waves are generated at the focus and travel in all directions in the body of earth
• While when body waves reach to the surface they become surface waves
• The surface waves move along surface
• The denser the material the higher the velocity. The direction changes as well with different densities
• Body waves are further divided into two P waves and S waves
• Difference between p waves and S waves
• P waves are called as primary waves while S waves are called secondary waves
• P waves are first to arrive at surface while S waves arrive with time lag
• P waves can travel in all materials while S waves can only travel through solid
• P waves vibrate parallel to direction of waves while S waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave 
• Surface waves
• They are last to be seen on seismograph 
• They are most destructive 

Emergence of shadow zone

• There are some specific areas where waves are not reported on seismograph. The zone is known as shadow zone
• Seismograph at any distance within 105 ° from epicenter will not record S waves
• Seismograph at any distance within 105 ° -145° from epicenter will not record P waves

Types of earthquakes

• (i) The most common ones are the tectonic earthquakes. These are generated due to sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
• (ii) A special class of tectonic earthquake is sometimes recognised as volcanic earthquake. However, these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
• (iii) In the areas of intense mining activity. sometimes the roofs of underground mines collapse causing minor tremors. These are called collapse earthquakes.
• (iv) Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices. Such tremors are called explosion earthquakes.
• (v) The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir induced earthquakes.

Measuring earthquake

• Earthquake is measured by a device called as seismograph
• There are two scale for measuring earthquake
• 1. Richter scale it is numbered from 1-10 and earthquake is measured depending on the density of it
• 2. Mercalli scale it's numbered from 1-12 and earthquake is measured depending on the visible damage caused by it 

Effect of earthquakes

• (i) Ground Shaking
• (ii) Differential ground settlement
• (iii) Land and mud slides
• (iv) Soil liquefaction
• (v) Ground lurching
• (vi) Avalanches
• (vii) Ground displacement
• (viii) Floods from dam and levee failures
• (ix) Fires
• (x) Structural collapse
• (xi) Falling objects
• (xii) Tsunami
• Earthquake of high magnitude are quite rare and tiny ones occurs every minute

Structure of earth 

Earth has three layers

1. Crust

• Outermost solid layer
• Somewhere it is as thin as 5 km and somewhere it is as thick as 50 km 

     2. Mantle

• The portion from moho' s discontinuity to 2,900 km is mantle
• The upper portion of mantle called asthenosphere ( astheno meaning weak ) it is main source of magma
• The layer below asthenosphere is solid
• Lithosphere is made up of crust and upper mantle

    3. Core 

• The outer core is of liquid state while inner core is of solid state
• It is made of heavy metal like iron and nickel
• Which is referred to as nife layer
  

   
  
  

Volcanoes 

Shield volcanoes

• Largest of all volcanoes
• Hawaiian volcanoes are perfect example
• These volcanoes are made of basalt for this reason this volcanoes are not steep 
• They become explosive when water entre in them 
• They may develop in cinder cone

Composite volcanoes

• They have cooler eruption and more viscous lava than basalt
• The material accumulates and lead to formation of layers

Caldera

• They are most explosive volcanoes in the world
• When they erupt they collapse on themselves
• The depression are called caldera

Flood basalt

• They have highly fluid lava that travel long distances
• The Deccan trap of India are much larger basalt provinces 

Mid Oceanic ridge

• This volcanoes occur in ocean 
• They have frequent eruptions
• There is a system of mid oceanic ridge more than 70,000 km long

Volcanic landforms

 Intrusive forms

• Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the surface)
•  plutonic rocks (cooling in the crust).
•  The lava that cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms. These forms are called intrusive forms.
  
  
  

Batholiths

• A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the form of large domes.
• Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.

Lacoliths

• These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a pipe-likeconduit from below.
•  It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite volcano
• The Karnataka. plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite rocks.

Lapolith

• When the laws forms a saucer shape concave to the sky it's called lapolith

Sill or sheet

• The horizontal deposit of Rocks are called sills or sheet
• Thinner one's are called sheets and thicker ones are called sills

Dykes 

• When lawa makes its way towards surface
• It cools down perpendicular forming structure called as dykes 
• This are found in western Maharashtra area 

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Class 11 ch 2 An Empire across three continents notes

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 AN EMPIRE ACROSS THREE CONTINENTS 

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• The empire we will be talking about is Roman empire which stretched over Africa ,Europe and Asia.
• In the Roman empire women had stronger position than many countries even today.
• However Roman empire was largely dependent on slave labor.
• From the fifth century on the Empire fell apart in the West, but remained intact and exceptionally prosperous in the eastern half

Sources

• Roman historians have a rich collection of sources which we broadly divided into three groups text ,documents and material remains.
• Text sources include historians of the period written by contemporary which are usually called annals.
• Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri.
• Inscriptions are usually cut on stones in both Greek and Latin which were the main languages in Roman empire, however they are various languages a part from this that were spoken
• The papyrus was a reed like plant that grow along the banks of Nile river in Egypt and was processed to produce a writing material.

The Roman empire was rival to the Iranian Empire

• These two Empire control most part of Europe Asia and Africa
• Between the birth of Christ and early part of seven century
• These empire next to each other separated only by a narrow strip of land along the river Euphrates.

Geography of Roman empire

• Continents of Europe and Africa are separated by a sea that stretched all the way from Spain in the west to Syria in the east and the sea is called Mediterranean sea known as the heart of Roman empire.
• Rome dominated the Mediterranean and all the regions around the sea.
• To the north the boundaries of the Empire was formed by two great rivers the Rhine and Danube
• To the south a large desert known as Sahara formed the boundary of the Empire.
• Iran control the whole area south of the Caspian sea to the eastern Arabia and sometimes Afghanistan as well.
• The two superpowers had divided up most of the world that Chinese called Ta chin  (greater Chin roughly the west)
• 
  
  

The early Empire

• The Roman empire can be broadly divided into two phases early and late which is divided by the third century, before the third century the Empire is known as early Empire, after third century to the downfall of the Empire it is known as late Empire.
• Roman empire was the mosaic of territories and cultures that was chiefly bounded by a common system of government.

languages in the empire 

•  many languages were spoken in the Roman empire but for the purpose of administration Latin and Greek were most prominent.
• The upper classes of the east spoke and wrote in Greek and those of west in Latin. The boundary between these broad languages are somewhere across the middle of the Mediterranean between the African provinces of Tripolitania which was Latin speaking and Cyrenaica which was Greek speaking.

Rulers of Roman empire 

• All those who lived in the empire were subjected to a single ruler regardless of what language they spoke and where they leave.
• The regime established by Augustus the first emperor in 27 BCE is called the principate system which established the rule o single ruler , he kept the fiction that he was only the leading citizen not the absolute ruler out of the respect of the senate.
• Earlier senatorial class ruled the Roman empire and the system was called republic.

Senate

• Senate had represented the aristocracy they were the wealthiest family.
• They had became of Italian descent later ,mainly land owners. 
• Most of the Roman history that survive was return by the people from a senatorial background
• As they wrote the history the worst emperors were those that was hostile to the senatorial and the best for those that were hospitable to the senatorial .
• They were next to the emperor.
• They have feared the army as it was a source of often unpredictable violence.

Army

• The army in Roman empire was of paid soldiers where they had to put in a minimum of 25 years of service.
• The existence of a paid army was a distinctive feature of Roman empire the army was the largest single organized body.
• It had the power to determine the fate of emperor they would agitate for  better wages and service condition and the agitation will always took the form of mutinies.

To sum of the emperor the aristocracy and the army were the three main players in the political history of the Empire. The success of the emperor depended on how they control the army 

• Succession to the throne was largely on family descent as a natural or adoptive hier.
• For example Tiberius the second in the long line of Roman emperors was the adopted son of Augustus.
• Augustus age is known for peace.
• The Roman empire gradual expansion was depended on absorbing the series of depended kingdoms.
• Some kingdoms was exceptionally wealthy like Herod's kingdom

Urbanization of Roman empire 

• Except for Italy which was not considered a provinces, all the territories of the Empire were organized into provinces and were subject to taxation.
• The great urban center's were bedrock of imperial system.
• Government was able to tax the countryside through cities ,the provincial upper class who supplied most of the cadre to the government and  commanded the army came to form a new Elite of administrators and military commanders as the new group emerged
•  the emperor gallienus excluded senator from military command.
• Individuals of Italian origin continue to dominate the senate at least till the third century when senators of provincial origin became a majority.
• A city of Roman empire had a City council and territory which contains villages one City will not be a territory of other City.
• Villages could be upgraded to the status of cities and vice versa.
• Public bath was a striking feature of Roman empire ,people enjoyed it ,one calendar tells us that spectacula filled no less than 176 days of the year

Difference between Roman empire and Iranian Empire

• Roman empire was mosaic of territories that were cultural more diverse than Iran. The dynasty is the partians and the sosanians had ruled the Iran in the period and the population was largely Iranian.
• Iran has conscripted army unlike Roman empire where army was paid.
• Public bath was striking feature of Roman empire and when a Iranian ruler tried to implement that it he encounter the wrath of the clergy there.

The third century crises

• The period of first and second century were  period of peace. The third century brought the major signs of internal strain.
• From the 230 the Empire found itself fighting different fronts simultaneously.
• In the Iran a new aggressive dynasty emerged in 225 call the sasanians they are expanded rapidly in the direction of Euphrates in just 15 years They captured the eastern capital of Antioch.
• A whole series of Germanic tribes began to move against the Rhine and the Danube frontiers and the whole period saw repeated invasions of the whole line of provinces that stretched from the Black sea the Alps and Southern Germany.
• The Roman called them barbarians
• The rapid succession of emperors in the third century 25 emperors in 47 years is an obvious symptom of the strains faced by the Empire in that period.

Gender literacy and culture

Gender 

• Adults on didn't live with families there were nuclear families.
• Slaves were there in family
• Dowry was given by brides family
• However she also inherited her father's property and remain the primary heir of her father.
• Roman women enjoyed considered legal rights in owning and managing properties.
• Divorce was relatively easy and needed no more than a notice of intent to dissolve the marriage by either husband or wife.
• There was a age difference males married in the late 20 or early 30 while women married of in the late teens or early twenties
•  marriages were mostly arranged
• Father had subsistence legal control over their children

Literacy

• It is seen there were casual literacy for example are kingdom which was buried in volcanic eruption in 79 CE has a strong evidence of casual literacy.
• In Egypt where hundreds of papyri survive most formal documents such as contracts were usually written by professionals .
• Literacy was certainly more wide spread among certain categories such as soldiers ,army officers or estate manager.

Culture

• The cultural diversity of the Empire was reflected in many ways
• The religious cults and local deities the plurality of languages that was spoken, the style of dress, the food people even the forms of social organization, even the patterns of settlement.
• Aramaic was the dominant language of the near east, Coptic was spoken in Egypt, Punic and Berber in North Africa, Celtic in Spain and Northwest.

Economic expansion

• The Empire had substantial economic infrastructure of harbors, mines, olive oil factories etc.
• Wheat, wine and olive oil were traded in huge quantities and the came mainly from Spain ,gallic provinces, North Africa Egypt and to a lesser extent Italy
• Liquid like wine and olive oil were transported in containers called Amphorae .  Mount Testaccio in Rome is said to contain the remains of over 50 million such vessels.

Spanish olive oil 

• Spanish olive oil had reached its peak in the years 140 to 160.
• Spanish olive oil was carried in the container called Dressel 20.
• Spanish producers succeeded in capturing market for olive oil from the Italian counterparts as they provided a better quality of oil at a lower price.
• The success of Spanish oil was repeated by North African producers through the third and fourth century. Later after 425 North African dominant's first broken by East ,in the later 5th and 6th century Southern Asia minor Syria and Palestine became major producer of wine and olive oil.

Fertility of regions 

• The Empire included many regions known for exceptional fertility like compania in Italy, Sicily, Egypt ,galilee ,Southern Gaul 
• The best kinds of wine came from compania
• Sicily and Byzacium exported large quantities of wheat to Rome.

Technologies in Empire 

• Roman empire was much more advanced it had developed hydraulic mining techniques, water powered milling technology .
• There was well organized commercial and banking network.

Controlling workers 

• There were three million slaves in the total Italian population of 7.5 million
• Slaves were viewed as an investment and writers suggested not to use them where too many required as their health could be affected however this was not out of sympathy but an economical calculation.
• Supply of slaves had declined due to less warfare so the alternatives like slave breeding and wage labor  was adopted.
• Slaves and freedman were business managers.

Writers view on slaves

• Columella suggested to keep twice the stock of tools and implements for the loss of slave labor as time exceeded the cost of such items.
• He also recommended the gang of 10 or group of slave for supervision.
• Opposing this Pliny the elder author of very famous natural history says it's the worst method as in this method slaves for chained together . 
• A law of 398 says that worker being branded so they could be recognized.
• There were also debt contract and debt bondage . In a Jewish revolt of 66 CE moneylender bonds were destroyed
• In the late 5th century emperor Anastasios built the east Frontier city of Dara in less than 3 weeks by offering high wages

Social hierarchies 

Division of society 

• Tacitus described the leading social groups of the early empire as follows,

1.  senators (patres, lit. 'fathers');
2.  leading members of the equestrian class;
3.  the respectable section of the people, those attached to the great houses, 
4. the unkempt lower class (plebs sordida) who, he tells us, were addicted to the circus and theatrical displays,
5. and finally the slaves.

• late empire, which starts with the reign of Constantine 1 
• in the early part of the fourth century, the first two groups mentioned by Tacitus (the senators and the equestrian had merged into a unified and expanded aristocracy, and at least half of all families were of African or eastern origin.
• aristocracy was enormously wealthy but in many ways less powerful than the purely military elites who came almost entirely from non-aristocratic backgrounds.
• Tacitus described this 'respectable' middle class as clients of the great senatorial houses.
•  Now it was chiefly government service and dependence on the State that sustained many of these families.
•  Below them were the vast mass of the lower classes known collectively as humiliores (lit. 'lower'). They comprised a rural labour force of which many were permanently employed on the large estates:
• self-employed artisans who, it was said, were better fed than wage labourers

Monetary system 

• The monetary system of the late empire broke the silver-based currencies of the first three centuries 
• because the Spanish silver mines were exhausted and government ran out of sufficient stocks of the metal to support a stable coinage in silver.. 
• Constantine founded the new monetary system on gold.

Bureaucracy 

• The late Roman bureaucracy, both the higher and middle classes, was a comparatively affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land.
• There was of course also a great deal of corruption.
• government intervened repeatedly to curb these forms of corruption
• The Roman state was an authoritarian regime: in other words, dissent was rarely tolerated
• Emperors were not free to do whatever they liked, and the law was actively used to protect civil rights.

Late antiquity

• 'Late antiquity' is the term now used to describe the final, fascinating period in the evolution and break-up of the Roman Empire and refers broadly to the fourth to seventh centuries.

Diocletian 

• Overexpansion led Diocletian to cut back by abandoning territories with little strategic and economic value.
•  Diocletian also fortified the frontiers, reorganised provincial boundaries, and separate civilian from military functions. granting greater autonomy to the military commanders (duces)

Constantine 

• Constantine consolidated some of these changes and added others of his own. His chief innovations were in the monetary sphere
• Constantine deciding to make Christianity the official religion, and with the rise of Islam in the seventh century
• He introduced a new denomination, the solidus.
• The other area of innovation was the creation of a second capital at Constantinople
• Monetary stability and an expanding population stimulated economic growth
• large parts of the Near Eastern countryside were more developed and densely settled in the fifth and sixth centuries

Religion 

• The traditional religious culture of the classical world, both Greek and Roman, had been polytheist. That is, it involved a multiplicity of gods that included both Roman/Italian gods like Jupiter, Juno, Minerva and Mars, as well as numerous Greek and eastern deities
• Polytheists had no common name or label to describe themselves. The other great religious tradition in the empire was Judaism. But Judaism was not a monolith
• Thus, the 'Christianisation of the empire in the fourth and fifth centuries was a gradual and complex process.

Kingdoms 

• The general prosperity was especially marked in the East where population was still expanding till the sixth century, despite the impact of the plague which affected the Mediterranean in the 540s.
• In the West, by contrast, the empire fragmented politically as Germanic groups from the North (Goths, Vandals, Lombards, etc.) took over all the major provinces and established kingdoms that are best described as 'post-Roman'.
• The most important of these were that of the Visigoths in Spain, destroyed by the Arabs between 711 and 720, that of the Franks in Gaul (c.511-687) and that of the Lombards in Italy (568-774).
• These kingdoms foreshadowed the beginnings of a different kind of world that is usually called 'medieval'.
• the reign of Justinian is the highwater mark of prosperity and imperial ambition.
• Justinian recaptured Africa from the Vandals (in 533) but his recovery of Italy (from the Ostrogoths) left the country devastated and paved the way for the Lombard Invasion.
• by the early seventh century the Sasanians who had ruled Iran since the third century launched a wholesale invasion of all the major eastern provinces (including Egypt).

Islam

• The expansion of Islam from its beginnings in Arabia has been called 'the greatest political revolution ever to occur in the history of the ancient world.
• By 642, barely ten years after the Prophet Muhammad's death, large parts of both the eastern Roman and Sasanian empires had fallen to the Arabs in a series of stunning confrontations. 
• However, we should bear in mind that those conquests, which eventually (a century later) extended as far afield as Spain, Sind and Central Asia, began in fact with the subjection of the Arab tribes by the emerging Islamic state, first within Arabia and then in the Syrian desert and on the fringes of Iraq.
• the unification of the Arabian peninsula and its numerous tribes was the key factor behind the territorial expansion of Islam.

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IKIGAI BEST AND SHORTEST SUMMARY

IKIGAI the Japanese secret to a long and happy life best summary 

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"Before we dive into summary of Ikigai , let me tell you this: This book is a transformative experience, not just a read. Curious? Grab your copy by clicking here and join millions who’ve been inspired!"

Ikigai basically means a motivating force of your life. It is the force that make you live

It lies in the area where you do what you love, what you are good at , what the world needs and what you can get paid for?

It explores the Japanese secret that people live longer and have a healthy life as they stop eating when they are 80 % full. They have an active mind and don't take much stress. Moreover, they never forget to move there body .

To find ikigai we need to discover meaning of our life, accept our feelings and do what we should do .

You need to go with flow like it is said be water my friend

Choose a task that is neither too difficult nor to easy and have a clear goal , doing it with no distraction is vital step

To live longer you should not worry, cultivate good habits,be optimistic and live a non hurried life . For that you should readily do yoga with other techniques such as tai chi , Qigong, shiatsu etc

You should be resilient,curb your ego, control negative emotions and achieve a state of tranquility . Live in now

Be antifragile by having or creating redundancies - having more than single salary/ more choices

Be conservative in certain areas and take small risk in other

Ged rid of things that make you fragile

Finally

praise imperfection and never stop learning 

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Indian constitution at work ch 1 Constitution: why and how? Notes class 11

 B.M. Academia help you to make your work easy . So here we are with notes of Indian constitution at work book of political science ch 1 Constitution why and how?

Constitution why and how? Notes 

Constitution : compact document that comprises a number of articles about the state specifying how the state is to be constituted and what norms to be followed

Why do we need constitution ?

1. To provide a set of basic rules that allow for minimal coordination amongst member of society

• In a diverse country Like India every group will need some basic rules that are publically promoted and known to all the members to achieve minimal coordination . They should be enforced

       2. To specify who has the power to make decision in a society. It decides how a                 government will be constituted 

• In monarchy ➡ monarch
• Soviet union ➡ single party
• Ancient greek ➡ all people directly vote

       India ➡ parliament decides law and policies 

       

      3. To set limits on what government can impose. The limits are fundamental in                nature such that government can never trespass them 

• This is to make sure that government doesn't pass unfair laws

       4. Enable government to fulfill the aspirations of a society and create conditions              for a just society

• The directive principles of state policy also allow government to fulfill certain aspirations of society

Fundamental identity of citizens

1. Political identity form by agreeing to certain norms
2. Moral identity form as constitution sets fundamental values that cannot be trespassed
3. National identity form as country provide with nationality 

Authority of constitution 

Making constitution effective depends on various factors

1. Mode of propagation 

• In many countries constitution don't work as it's either made by unpopular or military leaders
• Successful constitution is made aftermath of nationalist movement
• Like Indian constitution which was not subjected to referendum but has enormous public authority

       2.  Balance institutions design

• Constitution ensures that no institution acquire monopoly of power
•  This is done by fragmented power 
• Successful constitution strike right balance between preserving core values and adapting them to new circumstances
• Indian Constitution ➡ living document 

How was Indian constitution made?

• Constitution assembly held it's first sitting on 9 December 1946
• It again met on 14 August 1947 for divided India
• Members were indirectly chosen through proportional representation[ by single transferable vote] by members of provincial legislative assembly established under government of India act 1935
• This was made by the plan proposed by BRITISH CABINET or CABINET MISSION .
• Each state was allocated seats according to their population {1:1000000} where provinces were given 292 seats and princely states with 93 seats
• seats were distributed between three communities Muslim ,general, Sikhs. 

Composition of constituent assembly

• Consequence of the partition under the plan of 3 June 1947 . Members were reduced to 299
• Constitution assembly has 8 major committee on different subjects
• The constitution assembly met for 166 days over period of 2 years 11 months 18 days
• Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949
• 284 members signed constitution on 24 January 1950
• It was implemented on 26 January 1950

Principle of deliberation

• Each member deliberated upon constitution with interest of whole nation
• There were many disagreements 
• But universal suffrage was passed without any debate

Inheritance of nationalalist movement

The best summary of the principle that nationalist movement is the objective resolution moved by nehru in 1946

Provision adopted from different constitution of different countries

British constitution

• First past the post
• Parliamentary form of government
• The idea of rule of law
• Institution of speaker and his / her power
• Law making procedure

Irish constitution

• Directive principles of state policy

French constitution

• Principle of Liberty, equality and fraternity

Canadian constitution

• A quasi federal form of government
• The idea of residual power

United States constitution

• Charter of fundamental rights
• Power of judicial review and independence of judiciary 

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