Class 11 political science chapter 6 Judiciary notes

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 Judiciary 

The judiciary is a system of courts and judges that interprets, defends, and applies the law in legal cases

In other words it's a organ of government which deals with justice 

We all know judiciary is independent but 

Why do we need an independent judiciary?

We live in a society → disputes are bound to arise

supremacy of law should be there- So that decision doesn't favour any one

So there should be some independent institution that safeguard rights of individual 

Independence of judiciary 

Simply stated independence of judiciary means that

1. the other organs of the government like the executive and legislature must not restrain the functioning of the judiciary in such a way that it is unable to do justice.

2. the other organs of the government should not interfere with the decision of the judiciary.

3. judges must be able to perform their functions without fear or favour

In the constitution number of measures ensure independence of judiciary 

• Legislature is not involved in appointment of judges 
• To be appointed he must have experience as lawyer or well versed in law 
• Judges have a fixed term 
• Only in exceptional case they are removed otherwise they have security of tenure 
• Constitution prescribe a difficult process of removal of the judges 
• Judiciary is not financially dependent 
• Constitution provides that salary and allowance of judges are not subjected to approval of legislature 
• Parliament cannot discuss the conduct of judges except when the proceedings to remove the judge is being carried out 

Appointment of judges 

• It's a part of political process 
• Council of ministers, governor, chief minister, chief justice of India all influence judges appointment 
• Appointment of cji
• over the years, a convention had developed whereby the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court was appointed as the Chief Justice of India. 
• This convention was however broken twice. In 1973 A. N. Ray was appointed as CJI superseding three senior Judges.
• Again, Justice M.H. Beg was appointed superseding Justice H.R. Khanna (1975).
• The other judges are appointed by the president after consulting cji

• Role of cji in appointment of judges 

• Initially, the court felt that role of the Chief Justice was purely consultative.
• Then it took the view that the opinion of the Chief Justice must be followed by the President. 
• Finally, the Supreme Court has come up with a novel procedure: it has suggested that the Chief Justice should recommend names of persons to be appointed in consultation with four senior-most judges of the Court. 
• Thus, the Supreme Court has established the principle of collegiality in making recommendations for appointments

Removal of judges 

• A judge of the Supreme Court or High Court can be removed only on the ground of proven misbehaviour or incapacity.
•  A motion containing the charges against the judge must be approved by special majority in both Houses of the Parliament
• while in making appointments, the executive plays a crucial role; the legislature has the powers of removal. This ensures balance of power 

Unsuccessful Attempt to Remove Justice V. Ramaswami (1991-1992)

1. Background:
• In 1991, a motion to remove Justice V. Ramaswami from the Supreme Court was initiated, signed by 108 MPs.
• The charges related to misappropriation of funds during his tenure as the Chief Justice of the Punjab and Haryana High Court.
2. Inquiry Commission Findings:
• In 1992, a Supreme Court-led inquiry commission found him guilty of:
Willful and gross misuse of office.
Moral turpitude by using public funds for personal purposes.
Reckless disregard for statutory rules.
3. Outcome:
• Despite the strong indictment, Justice Ramaswami avoided removal because:
► The motion received the required two-thirds majority from members present and voting.
► However, the Congress Party abstained from voting, causing the motion to fall short of the required majority of the total strength of the House.
4. Result:
• The motion failed, and Justice V. Ramaswami retained his position despite the allegations and findings against him.

Structure of judiciary 

We have single integrated judiciary 

Jurisdiction of supreme court 

Source: ncert 

1. Original Jurisdiction:

• Definition: Cases that can be directly filed in the Supreme Court without going through lower courts.

• Scope: Includes disputes involving federal relations:

• Between the Union and States.
• Among States themselves.

• Role: Acts as an umpire in federal disputes and interprets the Union-State powers as defined in the Constitution.

• Exclusive Power: Only the Supreme Court can handle such cases; High Courts and lower courts have no authority.

2. Writ Jurisdiction:

• Purpose: Protects fundamental rights.

• Scope:

• Any individual whose rights are violated can directly approach the Supreme Court for remedies through writs.

• The High Courts can also issue writs, giving individuals the choice to approach either court.

• Orders to the Executive: The Court can direct the executive to act or refrain from specific actions.

3. Appellate Jurisdiction:

• Definition: Supreme Court reviews decisions of lower courts to ensure proper interpretation of law or Constitution.

• Scope:

• Appeals from High Court require certification that the case involves serious legal or constitutional questions.

• Appeals in criminal cases, particularly death sentences, can also be made.

• Powers: The Supreme Court can admit appeals even if not certified by the High Court.

• Role:

• Can overturn lower court rulings.

• Provides new interpretations of the law or Constitution.

• High Court Role: Has appellate jurisdiction over subordinate courts.

4. Advisory Jurisdiction:

• Definition: The President can refer questions of public importance or constitutional interpretation to the Supreme Court for advice.

• Discretion:

• The Supreme Court is not obligated to provide advice.

• The President is not bound to act on the advice.

• Utility:

• Helps the government seek legal opinions before taking action, reducing potential litigations.

• Allows the government to modify policies or legislation based on the Court's advice.

Article 137

…….. the Supreme Court shall have power to review any judgment pronounced or order made by it.

 Article 144

…… All authorities, civil and judicial, in the territory of India shall act in aid of the Supreme Court.

Judicial activism 

Introduction to PIL:

1. Definition:

• Public Interest Litigation (PIL), also called Social Action Litigation (SAL), allows individuals or groups to file cases on behalf of others, especially for public interest issues.

• This departs from the traditional practice where only personally aggrieved individuals could approach the courts.

2. Emergence (1979):

• First Case: The Supreme Court heard a case filed by others on behalf of the aggrieved.

• Expanded to issues like prisoners' rights, environmental protection, and conditions of the poor.

• The judiciary began considering cases based on newspaper reports or postal complaints.

3. Significance:

• PIL became the main vehicle of judicial activism, empowering courts to protect societal rights like clean air, unpolluted water, and decent living conditions.

Landmark PIL Cases:

1. Hussainara Khatoon vs. Bihar (1979):

• Highlighted the plight of undertrial prisoners in Bihar who spent more time in jail than their maximum punishment terms.

• Initiated judicial intervention to uphold the rights of the poor.

2. Sunil Batra vs. Delhi Administration (1980):

• Originated from a handwritten note by a Tihar jail inmate about prisoner abuse.

• Supreme Court turned the note into a petition, emphasizing prisoners' rights.

3. Bandhua Mukti Morcha vs. Union of India (1984):

• Justice Bhagwati stressed the need for a different judicial approach for the poor and underprivileged, as traditional adversarial procedures could prevent them from enforcing their fundamental rights.

Impact of Judicial Activism:

1. Democratisation of the Judicial System:

• Made courts accessible to individuals, groups, and social organizations for justice.

• Expanded the judiciary's role in addressing societal issues.

2. Executive Accountability:

• Forced the executive to act responsibly and implement laws effectively.

3. Electoral Reforms:

• Mandated candidates contesting elections to disclose assets, income, and educational qualifications, ensuring transparency for voters.

Criticism of Judicial Activism:

1. Overburdening Courts:

• The rise in PILs has increased the workload of the judiciary.

2. Blurring Separation of Powers:

• Judicial activism has encroached on the roles of the executive and legislature, handling issues like:

► Pollution control, corruption investigations, and electoral reforms-traditionally the responsibilities of the administration and legislatures.

3. Delicate Balance Among Organs:

• Critics argue that judicial activism can strain the democratic principle of maintaining separate powers for the judiciary, executive, and legislature.

Judiciary and rights

1. Protection of Rights:

• The judiciary protects individual rights by issuing writs like Habeas Corpus and Mandamus under Article 32 (Supreme Court) and Article 226 (High Courts).

• It can declare laws unconstitutional under Article 13 if they violate fundamental rights or the federal distribution of powers.

2. Judicial Review:

• Though not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, judicial review empowers courts to assess the constitutionality of laws.

• It applies to central and state laws that conflict with fundamental rights or the federal structure.

• Judicial review strengthens the judiciary's role as the Constitution's protector and interpreter.

3. Impact of Judicial Review:

• It ensures that the legislature's laws and executive actions align with constitutional principles.

• Combined with writ powers, it makes the judiciary powerful in safeguarding citizens' rights.

4. Role of PILs:

• PILs have expanded the judiciary's power, enabling it to address rights violations for marginalized groups and society at large.

Judiciary and Parliament

1. Judicial Activism:

• The judiciary has addressed executive accountability and constitutional subversion through interventions in high-profile cases like the Hawala case and illegal petrol pump allotments.

• It has directed executive agencies such as the CBI to take action in cases involving corruption and public interest.

2. Separation of Powers:

• The Constitution defines a clear division: Parliament makes laws, the executive implements them, and the judiciary interprets and settles disputes.

• However, conflicts among these organs have been recurrent, particularly between Parliament and the judiciary.

3. Parliament vs. Judiciary Conflicts:

• Issues like the right to property, land reforms, preventive detention, and compensation for acquired property led to debates over:

► The scope of fundamental rights and private property.

► Parliament's power to amend the Constitution and restrict fundamental rights.

► Balancing directive principles with fundamental rights.

4. Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973):

• The Supreme Court established the basic structure doctrine, ruling that:

►Parliament cannot amend the Constitution in a way that violates its basic structure.

► Right to property is not part of the basic structure and can be amended.

• This decision redefined Parliament-judiciary relations, granting the judiciary the authority to interpret what constitutes the basic structure.

5. Post-Kesavananda Bharati Conflicts:

• Judiciary's intervention in legislative matters:

► The judiciary has questioned legislative actions and directed legislatures on their conduct, which legislatures see as infringing on parliamentary sovereignty.

Examples include judiciary instructions on legislative business and legislative privilege breaches.

• Legislative criticism of judiciary: Instances of legislatures criticizing judicial functioning have strained the relationship further.

6. Delicate Balance:

• Democratic governance requires mutual respect among the three organs of government.

• Judicial activism and intervention, while ensuring accountability, have occasionally strained the balance of powers.

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Class 11 history chapter 6 Displacing indeginous people notes

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Displacing indigenous people 

European imperialism 

Imperialism means increasing own geographical area at the cost of other nation

Different nature of colonial establishment

1. In South Asia - company is like East India company became a political power
2. In Africa- Europeans traded on coast (except in South Africa) 

• Settler the term is used for 

1. Dutch in South Africa 
2. British in Ireland ,New Zealand and Australia 
3. European in America 

• Here the official language was English except in Canada where French was also an official language 
  

North America

Geography 

• It extent from Arctic Circle to tropic of Cancer 
• In the west of Rocky mountains is desert of Arizona and Nevada
• For the west lies Sierra nevada mountains 
• In East there are great plains, lakes, valleys of mississippi and ohio and Appalachian mountains
• In the south lies Mexico 
• 40% of Canada is covered with forest 
• Oil, gas and mineral resources are found in many parts so we are a big industries in this area 
• Fishing is a major industry in Canada 

The native people 

• The earliest inhabitants from Asia  came to North America around 30,000 year ago
• The oldest artifact found in America is an arrow point which is 11000 years old 
• Population only started to increase about 5000 years ago

• Hunting 

Fish ,meat and bison was eaten 

People cultivated vegetable and maize 

They only killed as many animals as needed

• Agriculture 

They don't produce a surplus 

And don't developed kingdoms and Empire 

They were fights between them but they were content with food and shelter 

They don't own a land 

Goods were not bought but given as gift

• Language

Numerous language was spoken but not written 

They believed time move in cycle 

Each tribe had a counts of their origin and earlier history 

• They were skilled craftsman and understand climate
• In 17 century when Europeans reached North America after 2 month voyage 
• They found friendly native people 
•  native traded fur and fish 
• In exchange of native goods Europeans give them iron vessels ,blankets ,gun and alcohol ( with which native people became addicted) Europeans acquired addiction of tobacco 

Mutual perception

• Western Europeans mean civilized as the one who is literate ,have organised religion and urbanization 
• According to them natives were  uncivilized
• However according to some philosophers like Jean Rousseau they had to be admired as they were away from corruption
• Popular term used was noble savages 
• According to English poet they have limited power of imagination and emotion 

• Goods
• To the natives they were gifts 
• 1 to the Europeans they were commodities 
• Sometimes European gave little in exchange sometimes they give more native couldn't understand this
• The greed of European resulted in slaughter of hundreds of beaver which made native uneasy

• Settler 
• Due to two sides of Christianity catholic and protestants there were a lot of clashes in catholic city protestants were prosecuted and vice versa  
• This was not problem until large land was vacant 
• But when European started clearing forest native were unhappy latest identified forest tracks as invisible to Europeans 
• While Europeans imagine forest cut down and replaced with cornfield 
• According to Thomas Jefferson third President of USA his dream was a country populated by Europeans with small farms natives were  uncivilized according to him

• Territory 

• Canada and USA came into existence only after 18th century 
• USA extended its land by purchase 
• southland was purchased from France ( the Louisiana) 
• Alaska was purchased from Russia 
• And by war much of Mexico was captured 
• When the frontiers move West natives forced to shift 

• Migrants
• Some migrants were younger son who didn't inherit fathers property
• And some were those who lost land to big farmers 
• They brought huge properties in low prices 
• The agriculture of rice and cotton started and to protect the farm they started killing wolves and lions
• They made it totally secure with barbed wire (1873) 
• Climate was too hot for them to work also, native they enslaved died in large number 
• So African slavery started
•  there were anti slavery protest which resulted in ban on slavery however those who were slaves were still slaves 
• Northern state where economy was not dependent on plantation or slavery argued ending slavery as it is an inhuman practice 
• In 1861 to 1865 war was held and slavery was banned 
• However only by 20 th century African Americans got civil liberties 
• Canada (1763) was won by British from France 
• Only in 1867 Canada became a confederation of autonomous state

The natives lose their land 

• Americans was the name given to Europeans living in America
• In USA natives were forced to shift and sign treaties 
• And Europeans saw nothing wrong in it 
• In 1832 USA chief justice John Marshall said Cherokees a tribe is occupying own land and there is nothing wrong in it
• Which was a opposed by US President Andrew Jackson 
• They justified it by saying that native don't deserve the land as they couldn't maximize its utility 
• Europeans killed wild bison and said that primitive man will disappear with primitive animal 
• Natives were locked in small areas known as reservations 
• They did not give up without fighting in USA between 1865 to 1890 there were lots of rebellion
• In Canada also the metis ( armed) had rebellions in 1869 to 1885 

The gold rush 

• Traces of gold were found in USA
• Which led to greater migration 
• Railways were made in USA and Canada for various reasons 

1. To manufacture railway equipments 
2. To produce machinery which make large scale farming easier 
3. Rapid transportation link for distant places

• Large scale agriculture was there 
• Bison was terminated which ended hunting for natives 
• 1892 USA continental expansion was complete and it set up its own colony in Hawaii and Philippines 

• Constitutional rights 

• Right to property and boat was given only to white man 
• Daniel Paul a Canadian native pointed out in 2000 that Thomas paine used 'Indians as model of society must be organised'

Winds of change 

• The problem of Indian administration a survey which was conducted by social scientist Lewis Mariam in 1928 
• Portrait a grim picture of native which result date in Indian Reorganisation act 1934 
• Which gave them right to buy land and take loans 
• In 1950 - 60s USA and Canadian Government  ended all special provisions so that the native could enter mainstream
• However native don't want this which led to the declaration of Indian rights in 1954 
• A number of natives accepted citizenship on a condition that their reservations will not be taken and culture would not be interfered with .
• In 1969 government announced they wouldn't recognise aboriginal rights 
• This resulted in mass moment that in 1982 constitution accepted their rights 

Australia 

• Aborigines begin to arrive on continent over 40,000 years ago they came from new guinea .
• In native tradition they were original there past was termed as dream time as not much is known about it 
• In late 18th century 352 -750 native communities were there even today 200 languages are spoken 
• Another group of indigenous people known as Torres strait Islander believed to be migrated 
• Together they make 2.4% of Australia's population 
• There was friendly interaction initially between them and outsiders initially it was captain cook that came here 
• In 19th and 20th century 90% of the population died due to germs or by land loss 

Settlers 

• Early settlers were mostly convicts deported from England upon completing the jail term they room freely in Australia but rarely return to England 
• Natives for employed at same condition as slavery 
• Chinese provided cheap service but faced a lot of discrimination 
• Post 1974 dark complex people were banned 

Capital 

• When States became independent a new capital would be built in Australia in 1911 suggested name for wollwheatgold ultimately Canberra which means kamberra meaning meeting place was decided to be the capital 

Winds of change 

• 1968 W.E.H. Stanner give lecture the great Australian silence 
• Aboriginal was gaining recognition 
• Henry Reynolds book why weren't we told? Became popular 
• From 1974 multiculturalism became official policy 
• Australia has no such treaties as America 
• Government called land Terra nullius meaning belonging to nobody 
• Also childrens of  mixed blood was separated from their native relatives
• This all led to  2 important decisions 

1. Strong historic bound with land of native was recognised and respected 
2. Apology for injustice done to children was issued

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Class 11 political science chapter 5 legislature notes

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 Legislature 

It's a group of elected people who have the power to make and change laws of a place 

Why do we need a parliament? 

• Parliament makes laws 
• It keeps a check on law makers example include the following 

1. 11 March 2002 - finance minister has to roll back rise in prices in fertilizer 
2. 4 June 1998 - finance minister ( yaswant singh ) to roll back increase in urea price 
3. 22 Feb 1983 - lok sabha suspended official businesses 
4. Congress members voiced protest against atrocities on Harijan

Why two houses of parliament?

• It is beneficial for a country or place with much diversity to have two houses of parliament as it double checks any law or decision as well as ensures that the views of diversity is respected 
• A place with only one house of parliament is known as unicameral legislature
• At present there are two houses of parliament only in six States which is known as bicameral legislature

1. Andhra Pradesh 
2. Bihar 
3. Karnataka 
4. Maharashtra 
5. Telangana 
6. Uttar Pradesh 

Rajya sabha 

• Rajya sabha represents the states of India and is known as council of States
• it is an indirectly elected body elected by the elected members of state legislative assembly 
• Two different principles of representation of this second chamber that is rajya sabha 

1. To give equal representation to all parts of country irrespective of their size or population this is known as symmetrical representation ex usa
2. To give representation according to size and population

• The number of members to be elected from each state has been fixed by the fourth schedule of constitution 
• Members of rajya sabha elected for term of 6 years they can get re-elected 
• Only one third of the seat after every 2 years is dissolved this means that at no point rajya sabha is completely dissolved so it is called the permanent house of parliament
• Advantage - when lok sabha is dissolved when rajya sabha can be called and urgent business can be conducted 
• Apart from elected members rajya sabha also has 12 nominated members which are nominated by the president 

Special powers 

• If any matter that affects the state it must be referred to the rajya sabha for it consent and approval 
• Rajya sabha alone can initiate the process of removal of vice president 
• Vice president is chairman of rajya sabha

Lok sabha

• It is directly elected by people for a term of 5 years 
• Entire country is divided into constituencies at present there are 543 constituencies which has not changed since 1971 
• The lok sabha can be dissolved if prime ministers advises the President to do so or if there is no party or coalition which can form the government 

Special powers

• Can only reject the money bill of the houses 

What does the parliament do? 

Legislative function 

• The parliament approves the legislature 
• The actual task of drafting bill is done by bureaucracy 
• Members other than ministers can also introduce the bill but drafting is done by ministry 

Control of Executive and ensuring it's accountability 

• Ensures Executive does not overstep it's authority 

Financial function 

• Government need to get approval by lok sabha to use any money or resources of the country 
• It grant resources to government 

Representation 

• It represents diverse population

Debating function 

• It is the highest form of debate and members are free to speak here 

Constituent function 

• Parliament can amend the constitution 

Electoral function 

• It elect vice president and President 

Judicial function 

• It can remove the vice president, president as well as judges through impeachment

Powers of lok sabha and rajya sabha 

How does the parliament make laws ?

Types of bill

• A bill is a draft of proposed law 
• When a non ministers propose a bill it is known as private members bill
• A bill proposed by minister is known as government bill 
• Even before the bill is introduced there is a lot of debate about the bill and the need of it 
• Once the cabinet approves the policy behind the legislation the task of drafting begins it is drafted by the concerned ministry 
• A large part of discussion takes place in the committees that's why they are known as miniature legislature 
• If one house approves the well while other rejects it then joint session of the parliament is called 
• In case of money bill the rajya sabha can either approved or suggest some recommendation if no action is taken place within 14 days the bill is considered to be passed 

Article 109 talks of the special procedure in respect of money bill a money bill can not be introduced in the council of States 

How does the parliament control the executive?

Parliamentary privilege 

• It is given to the members of parliament that no action shall be taken against any members for speaking on any matters in the parliament 
• The presiding officer of the legislature has the final power in deciding the matter of privilege 

Instruments of parliamentary control 

Deliberation and discussion 

• Which includes question hour and zero hour (1/2 hour) 

Approval or refusal of bills 

• A bill can only become law with the support of parliament 
• If the government has majority in lok sabha but not rajya sabha the bill can be rejected as it happened in 1977 and 2000 many bill such as Lokpal Bill and prevention of terrorism bill 2002 has been rejected

Financial control 

• Parliament can enquire into cases of misuse of funds on the basis of reports of the controller and audit general and public accounts committees 
• Parliament grands resources to government 

No confidence motion 

• The most powerful weapon 
• After 1989 several Government have been forced to resigned due to lack of confidence of the houses

What do the committees of the parliament do? 

• Since 1983 India has developed a system of parliamentary standing committees 
• There are 20 such departmentally related committees to supervise the work of various departments
• Apart from standing committees there are also joint parliamentary committees which can be set up for the purpose of discussing a particular bill members of this committees are selected from both houses

How the parliament regulate itself? 

• The presiding officer of the legislature is the final authority in matters of regulating the business of the legislature 

Anti defection law 

• 52nd amendment act in 1985 also known as anti defection amendment which has been modified in 91st amendment
• It's he is that if a member is proved to have defected then the member loses the membership of the house also the person is also disqualified from holding any political office 
• Defection means if a member remains absent in the house when asked by the party leadership to remain present or vote against the instruction of the party or voluntary leaves the membership of the party it is deemed as defection 

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Class 11 Geography chapter 13 movement of ocean water notes

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 Movement of ocean water 

Watch the explanation here

The ocean water is dynamic the horizontal and vertical motions are common in ocean water bodies

Horizontal 

• Refers to ocean currents and waves 
• Ocean currents are the continuous flow of huge water in a definite direction 
• Waves are the horizontal motion of water

Vertical 

• Refers to tides

• Vertical motions refer to the rise and fall of water due to attraction of the sun and the moon

Waves

• The water in waves does not move only the wave trains moves ahead 
• Waves are actually the energy which moves across the ocean surface 
• Wind provides energy to waves
•  the energy is released on shorelines
• When a wave approaches the beach it slow down this is due to the friction occurring between the dynamic water and the sea floor 
• This is also when the debt of water is less than half of the wavelength of the wave the wave breaks
• Waves continue to grow larger as the move and absorb energy from the wind

Most ocean waves are created by the wind pushing against the water. 

• Small Ripples: When the wind blows gently at two knots or less, tiny ripples form on the calm water.
• Growing Waves: As the wind becomes stronger, these ripples grow into bigger waves. Eventually, they break at the top, creating white foam called white caps.
• Journey Across the Ocean: Waves can travel thousands of kilometers across the ocean before they reach the shore, where they break into surf.

What Waves Tell Us

• The size and shape of a wave reveal its origin:
• Steep Waves: These are younger waves, likely created by nearby winds.
• Smooth, Steady Waves: These come from far-off places, possibly even another hemisphere.
• The biggest waves are formed by strong winds blowing over a large area for a long time in the same direction.

How Waves Move

• Waves move because the wind pushes the water, while gravity pulls the wave crests down. This movement causes water to circle, creating a pattern:
• The water moves up and forward as the wave approaches.
• It moves down and back as the wave passes.

Key Features of Waves

• Here are some simple terms to understand waves better:
• Crest and Trough: The crest is the wave’s highest point, and the trough is its lowest point.
• Wave Height: The vertical distance from the bottom of the trough to the top of the crest.
• Wave Amplitude: Half of the wave height.
• Wave Period: The time it takes for two crests (or troughs) to pass a fixed point.
• Wavelength: The distance between two crests.
• Wave Speed: How fast the wave moves, measured in knots.
• Wave Frequency: The number of waves passing a point in one second.
  
  
  

Tides 

• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level once or twice a day mainly due to the attraction of the sun and the moon is called a tide 
• Moment of water caused by meteorological effects ( wind and atmospheric pressure changes ) are called surges. They are not regular as tide

Factors 

• The moon’s gravitational pull to large extent 
• the suns gravitational pull to a lesser extent
• Another factor is centrifugal force which is the force that acts to counter balance the gravity 
• Together they both are responsible for creating two major tidal bulges on the earth
• Tides are caused by a balance between two forces:
• 1. The Moon’s Gravity: The moon pulls on the Earth’s water with its gravitational force.
• 2. Centrifugal Force: This is the outward force caused by the Earth and moon spinning around their shared center of gravity.

How Tidal Bulges Form

• Closer to the Moon: On the side of Earth facing the moon, the moon’s gravitational pull is stronger than the centrifugal force. This creates a bulge of water towards the moon.
• Farther from the Moon: On the opposite side of Earth, the moon’s gravity is weaker, and the centrifugal force dominates. This causes a second bulge of water, away from the moon.
• These bulges are what we recognize as high tides.

Factors That Affect Tides

• 1. Continental Shelves: In wide, shallow areas, tidal bulges are taller.
• 2. Mid-Ocean Islands: When tides reach islands in the middle of the ocean, they tend to be lower.
• 3. Bays and Estuaries: The shape of the coastline can magnify tides. For example, funnel-shaped bays make tides stronger.
  
  
  

Tidal Currents

• When water is forced through narrow areas, like between islands or into bays and estuaries, it creates tidal currents—strong flows of water caused by changing tides.

The Tides of Bay of Fundy

• The Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada, experiences the highest tides in the world, with water levels rising up to 15-16 meters. This dramatic change occurs twice daily, with two high tides and two low tides roughly every 24 hours.
• Speed of the Tide: Since the tide rises within about six hours, it increases by approximately 240 cm per hour.
• Safety Tip: On beaches with steep cliffs (common in the area), it’s crucial to monitor the tides. A rising tide could quickly cover large areas and become dangerous.

Types of tides 

Types of Tides Based on Frequency

• 1. Semi-Diurnal Tide:
• The most common type.
• Two high tides and two low tides daily, with heights approximately equal.
• 2. Diurnal Tide:
• One high tide and one low tide each day.
• Heights are consistent.
• 3. Mixed Tide:
• Uneven heights in successive high and low tides.
• Found along the west coast of North America and in parts of the Pacific Ocean.

Based on the Sun, Moon, and Earth Positions

• 1. Spring Tides:
• Occur when the sun, moon, and Earth align (during full moon and new moon).
• Result in the highest tides due to combined gravitational forces.
• 2. Neap Tides:
• Occur when the sun and moon form a right angle with Earth.
• The gravitational forces partially cancel each other out, creating lower high tides and higher low tides.
  
  
  

Special Cases

• Perigee Tides: When the moon is closest to Earth, causing unusually high and low tides.
• Apogee Tides: When the moon is farthest from Earth, resulting in smaller tidal ranges.
• Perihelion Tides: Around January 3rd, when Earth is closest to the sun, causing greater tidal ranges.
• Aphelion Tides: Around July 4th, when Earth is farthest from the sun, causing smaller tidal ranges.

Key Terms

• Ebb: The period when the water level is falling (from high tide to low tide).
• Flow/Flood: The period when the tide is rising (from low tide to high tide)

Importance of tides 

•  Predictability: Tides are influenced by predictable Earth-moon-sun positions, helping navigators and fishermen plan effectively.
• Navigation: Tidal flows assist in navigation, especially in shallow estuaries or harbors.
• Environmental Benefits: Tides help remove sediments and polluted water from river estuaries.
• Energy Generation: Tidal power plants in countries like Canada, France, Russia, and China generate electricity. In India, a 3 MW tidal project is under development in the Sundarbans. 
• Tides are not just natural phenomena but vital for ecosystems, navigation, and renewable energy!

Ocean currents 

• Ocean currents are like rivers within the ocean, flowing in regular paths and directions. They result from a combination of forces that initiate movement and influence the flow.

Forces Influencing Ocean Currents

• Primary Forces (Start the currents):

•  Solar Heating:

• The sun heats water near the equator, causing it to expand.
• This expansion makes sea levels near the equator about 8 cm higher than in middle latitudes, creating a slight slope for water to flow downhill.

• Wind:

• Wind blowing over the ocean’s surface creates friction and pushes water, generating surface currents.

•  Gravity:

• Gravity pulls water down from higher levels, maintaining the slope-driven flow.

•  Coriolis Force:

• Due to Earth’s rotation, currents are deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
• This deflection creates large circular current systems known as Gyres, found in ocean basins worldwide.

• Secondary Forces (Control depth and direction):

• Water Density Differences:

• Cold, salty water is denser and sinks, while warm, less salty water is lighter and rises.
• This movement contributes to vertical currents and the overall flow of ocean water.
  
  
  

Types of Ocean Currents

Based on density 

The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as surface currents and deep water

currents : 

(i) surface currents constitute about

10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean;

(ii) deep water currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water. 

 Based on Temperature

Ocean currents are classified into two main types based on their temperature: cold currents and warm currents. These currents play a vital role in regulating the Earth's climate, influencing marine ecosystems, and shaping coastal environments.

1. Cold Ocean Currents

Definition: Cold currents carry cold water from polar or high-latitude regions to warmer areas.

Characteristics:

• Found along the west coasts of continents in low and middle latitudes in both hemispheres.
• Located on the east coasts of continents in higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

2. Warm Ocean Currents

Definition: Warm currents carry warm water from equatorial regions to cooler areas.

Characteristics:

• Found along the east coasts of continents in low and middle latitudes in both hemispheres.
• Located on the west coasts of continents in higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

Effects of ocean currents 

Climate Impacts

1. West Coasts in Tropical and Subtropical Regions:

• These coasts are bordered by cool currents, leading to:

•  Lower average temperatures.
• Narrow temperature ranges (both daily and annually).
• Frequent fog
• Generally arid conditions

2. West Coasts in Middle and Higher Latitudes:

• Bordered by warm currents, creating a marine climate characterized by:
• Cool summers and mild winters.
• Narrow annual temperature ranges.

3. East Coasts in Tropical and Subtropical Regions:

• Warm currents flow along these coasts, resulting in:.
• Warm and rainy climates.
• These areas typically lie in the western margins of subtropical anti-cyclones, which further influences rainfall patterns.

Marine Ecosystems

• Mixing Zones of Warm and Cold Currents:

• Where warm and cold currents meet, oxygen levels increase, supporting the growth of plankton, the primary food for fish.

• These zones are home to some of the world's richest fishing grounds.

Importance of Mixing Zones

1. Marine Biodiversity:

• Enhanced oxygen and plankton growth attract a variety of fish species, making these regions biodiversity hotspots.

2. Fishing Industry:

• Areas where warm and cold currents mix, such as off the coasts of Japan and Newfoundland, are among the world's best fishing grounds, supporting local economies.

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Class 11 political theory chapter 5 Rights notes

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Rights 

Intro 

 Rights: The Foundation of Democracy and Equality

• Rights form the backbone of democratic societies. They are not just legal entitlements but are also essential guarantees that ensure dignity, equality, and individual liberty. 

What Are Rights?

Rights are fundamental claims or entitlements that ensure individuals can live with dignity, freedom, and equality. They are vital for personal development and collective well-being.

Why Are Rights Important?

Dignity and Self-Respect: Rights provide the conditions necessary for individuals to maintain self-respect and honor.
Development: They enable people to nurture their talents and pursue opportunities to achieve their potential.
Equality: Rights ensure that everyone has access to freedoms and protections regardless of their background.

Origins of Rights

The concept of rights has evolved significantly:

1. Natural Rights

Philosophers in the 17th and 18th centuries, believed that rights were granted by nature or God. These "natural rights" were considered inherent to human beings and not dependent on laws or rulers.

2. Human Rights

Modern society emphasizes "human rights" over natural rights. These are social constructs that guarantee a minimally good life. They challenge inequalities based on race, caste, religion, or gender and ensure freedoms for all.

3. Expanding Scope of Rights

As societies evolve, new rights emerge to address emerging challenges. Examples include:
Environmental Rights: Right to clean air and sustainable development.
Digital Rights: Right to privacy and freedom in the digital space.

Legal Recognition and the Role of the State

The state plays a critical role in recognizing and enforcing rights:

1. Constitutional Provisions

Many countries enshrine rights in their constitutions. In India, Fundamental Rights are central to the Constitution and reflect the values of equality, liberty, and justice.

2. State Obligations

Rights impose obligations on the state to act positively (e.g., ensuring justice) and refrain from negative actions (e.g., violating privacy).
They ensure that state authority respects individual freedoms.
Rights also place limits on the misuse of power by governments.

Types of Rights

Rights can be categorized into different types, each addressing specific aspects of human life and society.

1. Political Rights

Political rights empower citizens to participate in the governance of their country.
Examples:
Right to vote.
Right to contest elections.
Right to form or join political parties.

Significance: These rights make governments accountable and ensure that the people remain at the center of decision-making.

2. Economic Rights

Economic rights ensure access to basic necessities and opportunities for economic growth.
Examples:
Right to food, shelter, and health.
Right to work and fair wages.

Relevance: These rights address poverty and inequality. Initiatives like India’s rural employment guarantee scheme are steps toward fulfilling these rights.

3. Cultural Rights

Cultural rights safeguard the identity and heritage of diverse communities.
Examples:
Right to primary education in one’s mother tongue.
Right to preserve cultural traditions.

Importance: These rights protect cultural diversity and ensure inclusion in multicultural societies.

Rights and Responsibilities

Rights come with corresponding responsibilities that promote a balanced and harmonious society.

1. Collective Good

Rights compel individuals to prioritize societal well-being over personal interests.

2. Respect for Others

If you demand freedom of speech, you must also respect others’ right to express their views.

3. Resolving Conflicts

Rights may sometimes conflict, requiring a balance. For example:
Freedom of expression vs. right to privacy.
Example: Taking unauthorized photos of someone infringes on their privacy despite being an expression of freedom.

4. Vigilance

Citizens must be alert to potential misuse of power by governments, such as restrictions imposed under the guise of national security.

Rights in a Modern Context

Rights are not static; they adapt to the changing needs of society:
Digital Age: Issues like cybersecurity and data privacy are integral to modern rights.
Global Challenges: Climate change and pandemics have highlighted the need for collective rights that go beyond national boundaries.

Conclusion

Rights are the foundation of democracy and equality. They ensure individual freedoms, hold governments accountable, and promote social justice. However, rights also come with responsibilities to respect others and safeguard these freedoms for future generations.
In today’s world, understanding and upholding rights is more important than ever to build a fair and equitable society. Rights are not just legal entitlements; they are a testament to human dignity, equality, and the collective progress of humanity.

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Class 11 Geography chapter 7 composition and structure of atmosphere notes

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Composition and structure of atmosphere 

Intro 

•  99% of total mass of the atmosphere is confined in the height of 32 km from the surface of Earth 
• The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that Oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km 
• Carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the surface of Earth

Carbon dioxide 

• It is transparent to incoming solar radiation but Opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation this means that because of this gas the heat couldn’t go out the retaining the warm of planet
• It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiations and reflect back some part of it towards the surface of Earth

Green house effect 

• The volume of other gases on the planet does not increase in few years but the volume of carbon dioxide has been rising at an alarming rate in the past few years 
• This leads to an increase in temperature .
• This also led to greenhouse effect.

Ozone 

• Ozone is another important component of atmosphere which is found between 10 to 50 km about the surface of Earth 
• It acts as a filter and absorbs ultraviolet rays of the sun so that they couldn’t enter Earth and harm us 
• Due to the present greenhouse effect the ozone layer is depleting

Water vapour 

• Water vapour decreases with increase in altitude 
• In warm areas the level of water vapour is higher while in cold areas it may be less 
• Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the pole 
• It absorbs parts of the isolation from the sun and the heat of the planet 
• Thus it acts like a blanket which neither allows Earth to become too hot nor too cold 

Dust particles 

• Dust particles are generally found in lower layers of atmosphere but conventional air current can take them to higher levels as well 
• The higher concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate regions due to dry winds
• Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce clouds 

Structure of atmosphere 

1. Troposphere

• Height:
• Extends up to about 8-15 km above sea level, with variations based on latitude (thicker at the equator, greater conventional current transport air at higher levels, thinner at the poles).
• Characteristics:
• This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, where almost all weather phenomena, such as clouds, rain, and storms, occur.
• Contains about 75% of the Earth’s atmosphere by mass.
• The air is densest in this layer, which leads to a gradual decrease in temperature with altitude (about 1°C for every 165 m)
• Contains water vapour, dust particles, and other gases that are important for weather patterns.
• Key Events:
• Cloud formation, weather phenomena, and airplanes typically fly in the lower and middle parts of this layer.
• Tropopause 
• The temperature is about minus 80 degree Celsius over the equator and about minus 45 degree Celsius the temperature here is nearly constant

2. Stratosphere

• Height:
• Extends from about 15 km to 50 km above Earth’s surface.
• Characteristics:
• This layer contains the ozone layer (around 20-30 km), which absorbs and scatters ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun, providing protection to life on Earth.
• In contrast to the troposphere, temperature increases with altitude in this layer (due to the absorption of UV radiation by the ozone).
• Air is thin and stable, with very little weather activity.
• Key Events:
• Commercial jet aircraft usually fly in the lower stratosphere (above the troposphere), where air is more stable and has less turbulence

3. Mesosphere

• Height:
• Extends from about 50 km to 85 km above Earth’s surface.
• Characteristics:
• In this layer, temperature decreases with altitude, and it is the coldest layer of the atmosphere. Temperatures can drop to -100°C at the top of the mesosphere.
• This layer is where most meteors burn up upon entering Earth’s atmosphere, due to the high density of air molecules at this height.
• Key Events:
• Meteor showers are observed in this layer as meteoroids from space burn up

4. Thermosphere

• Height:
• Extends from about 85 km to 500 km above Earth’s surface
• Characteristics:
• The ionosphere (a region of charged particles) is found in the lower part of the thermosphere. This layer reflects radio waves and helps in long-distance 
• location of ionosphere – between 80 to 400 km above mesopause 
• Auroras (northern and southern lights) occur in this layer due to solar wind interactions with Earth’s magnetic field.
• Key Events:
• Spacecraft and satellites orbit Earth in this layer. The ionosphere also plays a crucial role in radio wave transmission.

5. Exosphere

• Height:
• Extends from about 500 km to 10,000 km above Earth’s surface.
• Characteristics:
• The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth’s atmosphere, where atmospheric particles are extremely sparse.
• Here, particles are so far apart that they can travel long distances without colliding.
• This layer is where Earth’s atmosphere transitions into space.
• Key Events:
• Satellites orbit in this layer, and spacecraft that are leaving Earth’s atmosphere pass through this region on their way to outer space.

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Class 11 Geography chapter 10 water in the atmosphere notes

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Water in the atmosphere 

• water vapour varies from 0-4 percent by volume in atmosphere 
• Water vapour present in atmosphere is called humidity 
• Actual amount of water vapour present in air is called absolute humidity 
• The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere compared to its full capacity at a given temperature is called as relative humidity 
• Measured in gram per cubic metre 
• Air containing moisture to its full capacity is called saturated at the temperature is called as dew point 

Evaporation and condensation 

• Evaporation is the process by which water is transformed from liquid to gases state the temperature at which the water start vaporising is referred to as the latent heat of vaporization 
•  if the water content in the air is low, the potential of the air of retaining moisture increases in moving air there is unsaturated air  Movement of air replaces the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer
• Thus ,The greater the movement of air the greater is the vaporisation 
• The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation it is caused by loss of heat if it directly converts into solid form it is known as sublimation 
• in free air condensation results from cooling around very small particles termed as hygroscopic condensation nuclei 
• Condensation is influenced by the volume of air its temperature pressure and humidity 
• It takes place 

1. when the temperature of the air is reduced to give point with its volume remaining constant and
2.  when both the volume and temperature are reduced and 
3. when moisture is added to the air through evaporation 
4. the most favourable condition of condensation is the decrease in air temperature 

• Condensation takes place when the dew point is lower than the freezing point as well as higher than the freezing point

Frost

• Definition: Frost forms when the air temperature falls below freezing point (0°C) and water vapor directly turns into ice crystals on cold surfaces (a process called deposition).
• Formation Process:
• Frost occurs on clear, calm nights when the ground loses heat rapidly through radiation.
• Surfaces cool below the dew point, which must also be below 0°C.

 Dew

• Definition: Dew forms when water vapor condenses into liquid droplets on cool surfaces after the air temperature falls to the dew point but remains above freezing (0°C).
• Formation Process:
• Dew forms during calm, clear nights when the ground cools rapidly through radiation, causing air near the surface to become saturated.
• Appearance: Small, clear water droplets on grass, leaves, or other objects, often seen in the early morning.
• Significance: Indicates high humidity and aids plant hydration in dry areas.

Fog

• Definition: Fog is a dense layer of tiny water droplets suspended in the air that reduces visibility to less than 1 kilometer.
• Formation Process:
• Air near the surface cools to its dew point temperature, causing water vapor to condense into tiny droplets.
• Fog forms in areas with high humidity, such as valleys, coastal areas, or during winter.
• Types of fog include:
• Smog – when smoke is mixed with fog 
• Characteristics:
• Dense and cloud-like; significantly reduces visibility.
• Common in winter, especially in valleys or near water bodies

Mist

• Definition: Mist is a thin veil of water droplets suspended in the air, with visibility ranging between 1 and 2 kilometers.
• Formation Process:
• Mist forms under similar conditions as fog but with less cooling and when the air contains more moisture.
• Water droplets in mist are smaller and more dispersed than in fog.
• Characteristics:
• Appears as a light, hazy layer, often seen near water bodies or early in the morning.
• Mist contains more moisture than fog, making it less dense but widespread.

Key Differences Between Frost, Dew, Fog, and Mist

• Dew and frost are surface-level condensation phenomena; dew forms as liquid water, while frost forms as ice.
• Fog and mist are airborne condensation phenomena. While both are clouds near the surface, mist contains more moisture and is less dense than fog, resulting in higher visibility.
• All these processes depend on cooling, saturation, and the presence of condensation nuclei in the atmosphere.

Cloud

• Clouds are classified into four types based on their form: Cirrus, Cumulus, Stratus, and nimbus 

1. Cirrus Clouds

Definition:

• High-altitude clouds that appear thin, white, and wispy, often resembling feathers.

Characteristics:

• They are formed at high altitude of 8,000 - 12,000 m
•  Light, delicate appearance with no precipitation.
• Indicate fair weather but often signal an approaching weather change, like a warm front.

2. Cumulus Clouds

Definition:

• White, puffy clouds with a flat base and a dome-shaped top, often likened to cotton balls.

Characteristics:

• They are formed at height of  4000 -7000 m 
• Associated with fair weather, but they can grow vertically into storm clouds (Cumulonimbus).
• Form due to convection as warm air rises and cools.

3. Stratus Clouds

Definition:

• Clouds that form a uniform, layered, grayish layer covering large parts of the sky. They are featureless and often bring overcast weather.

Characteristics:

• Found at up to 2,000 meters (low altitude).
• This are either formed by loss of heat or mixing of air masses with different temperature .

4. Nimbus Clouds

Definition:

• Nimbus clouds are dense, dark clouds associated with precipitation. The term “nimbus” refers to clouds that bring rain.

Characteristics:

• Sometimes they could be very low as to touch the ground 
• They are opaque to rays of sun 

• A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the following types of clouds:
• high clouds – cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus;
• middle clouds – altostratus and altocumulus;
• low clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus 
• clouds with extensive vertical development – cumulus and cumulonimbus.

• 

Precipitation 

• The release of moisture is known as precipitation this may take form in rainfall or in snowfall The other forms of precipitation include sleet and hail

1. Sleet

Definition:

• Sleet is a type of precipitation that occurs when raindrops freeze into ice pellets before reaching the ground.

Formation Process:

• Sleet forms in cold weather when there is a layer of warm air above a freezing layer near the surface.
• Raindrops fall through the warm layer, then pass into the freezing layer below, where they turn into ice pellets.

Characteristics:

• Sleet consists of small, transparent ice pellets.
• It often bounces upon hitting the ground and can create slippery surfaces.
• Typically occurs in winter or during cold weather transitions.

2. Hail

Definition:

• Hail consists of large, solid ice balls or lumps that form in strong convective clouds.

Formation Process:

• Hail forms in intense updrafts inside thunderstorms.
• Supercooled water droplets are lifted repeatedly within the cloud by strong updrafts, freezing into layers of ice around a nucleus (like a dust particle or frozen droplet).
• As the ice grows larger, it eventually becomes too heavy for the updraft to hold, and it falls as hailstones.

Characteristics:

• Hailstones can vary in size, ranging from small pellets to large stones over 5 cm in diameter.
• Associated with severe weather like thunderstorms and strong winds.
• Typically occurs in summer or warm seasons due to convective activity.

Types of rainfall 

1. Convectional Rainfall

Definition:

• Convectional rainfall occurs due to the heating of the Earth’s surface, which causes warm, moist air to rise rapidly, cool, and condense into rain.

Formation Process:

• Sun heats the Earth’s surface, warming the air above it.
• The warm, moist air rises (convection), expands, and cools as it ascends.
• Cooling reaches the dew point, causing condensation and cumulous cloud formation.
• Further cooling leads to precipitation in the form of rain.

Characteristics:

• Usually occurs in equatorial regions.
• Accompanied by thunderstorms and heavy downpours.
• Happens mostly during the afternoon when surface heating is strongest.

Examples:

• Found in tropical rainforests, such as the Amazon Basin, Congo Basin, and Southeast Asia.

2. Orographic (Relief) Rainfall

Definition:

• Orographic rainfall occurs when moist air is forced to rise over a mountain barrier. As the air rises, it cools, condenses, and causes rain on the windward side.

Formation Process:

• Moist air moves toward a mountain range.
• The air is forced to ascend along the slopes, cooling adiabatically.
• Water vapor condenses, forming clouds and precipitation on the windward side.
• On the leeward side, the descending air becomes warmer and drier, creating a rain shadow area.It is also known as relief rain 

Characteristics:

• Uneven distribution of rainfall across regions.
• Heavy rainfall occurs on the windward side, while the leeward side experiences arid or semi-arid conditions.

Examples:

• Western Ghats: Windward side receives heavy rainfall during the monsoon, while the leeward side (Deccan Plateau) lies in the rain shadow.

 3. Cyclonic (Frontal) Rainfall

Definition:

• Cyclonic rainfall occurs when two air masses of different temperatures and densities meet along a front. Warm air is forced over the cold air, leading to condensation and precipitation.

Formation Process:

• A cyclone or depression forms when warm, moist air meets cold, dense air.
• The warm air rises over the cold air due to its lower density.
• As the warm air ascends, it cools, condenses, and forms clouds, resulting in rainfall.

Characteristics:

• Associated with cyclones and temperate regions.
• Rainfall is often widespread and prolonged.
• Accompanied by cloudy skies and moderate to heavy rain.

Examples:

• Occurs in the Indian Ocean during cyclonic storms.

World distribution of rainfall 

World Distribution of Rainfall

Different places on Earth get different amounts of rainfall in a year and in different seasons.

General Patterns of Rainfall:

• As we move from the equator to the poles, rainfall generally decreases.
• Coastal areas receive more rainfall than inland areas.
• Oceans get more rainfall than land because they have more water to evaporate.

Regional Rainfall Patterns:

• Between 35° and 40° latitude (North & South): The eastern coasts get more rain, and it decreases as we move westward.
• Between 45° and 65° latitude (North & South): The western coasts get more rain due to strong winds (westerlies), and it decreases towards the east.
• Mountains near the coast: The side facing the wind (windward side) gets more rain, while the opposite side (leeward side) gets less.

Annual Rainfall Zones:

• Heavy Rainfall (Above 200 cm per year): Found in the equatorial region, mountain slopes on the western coasts in cooler areas, and monsoon coastal regions.
• Moderate Rainfall (100–200 cm per year): Found in inland areas and some coastal regions.
• Low Rainfall (50–100 cm per year): Found in central tropical regions and the interiors of temperate lands.
• Very Low Rainfall (Below 50 cm per year): Found in deserts, rain-shadow areas, and high-latitude regions near the poles.

Seasonal Rainfall:

• Some areas, like the equatorial belt and western coasts in cool temperate zones, get rain evenly throughout the year.
• In other places, rainfall is concentrated in specific seasons, making water availability uneven.

This distribution of rainfall affects agriculture, water supply, and climate in different parts of the world.

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